Some of the disputes between African countries are rooted in historical territorial disputes over the use of land and water resources. Others are linked to political factors related to separatist movements or armed conflicts. Climate change will increase pressure on natural resources, and leaders and the public remember which side other countries took long after a conflict is over, making such disputes intractable.
In the Horn of Africa, diplomatic crises have erupted between Kenya and Sudan and between Somalia and Ethiopia, with ambassadors recalled in both cases. The Kenya-Sudan crisis was sparked by Kenyan President William Ruto warm welcome of the Sudanese paramilitary commander Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti). Hemedi is a rival in the civil war against General Abdel Fatah al-Burhan, the head of the Sudanese government and armed forces. Al-Burhan interpreted Kenya’s actions as favoring Hemedti in the conflict and responded by recalling Sudan’s ambassador to Kenya and calling for Kenya’s exclusion from mediation efforts. In the other dispute, landlocked Ethiopia sought to secure access to the sea through an agreement with Somaliland, a breakaway region of Somalia. The move prompted Mogadishu to recall its ambassador from Addis Ababa.
Meanwhile, the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) has created geopolitical tension between Ethiopia, Egypt and Sudan, bringing the countries to the brink military conflict. Ethiopia is building the dam to double its electricity supply for domestic use and possible export to other countries. Egypt, however, is concerned about the impact of the dam on the livelihoods of more than 90 percent of its population due to the subsequent restriction of water supply. The fourth round of negotiations between the two countries was completed last year without agreement. Analysts suggest that this dispute could potentially provide an avenue for a proxy war, as Egypt has a military base in Somalia, while Ethiopia has signed Memorandum of Understanding with Somaliland for port and maritime access to the Gulf of Aden as mentioned above.
In central Africa, relations between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Rwanda continue to deteriorate. Hostilities between the two neighbors date back to the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Many of the perpetrators fled to the DRC and Rwanda believes the DRC continues to give them sanctuary rather than return them to justice. Recent tensions have been fueled by renewed fighting between DPRK forces and the March 23 (M23) rebel group. Rwandan President Paul Kagame and his DRC counterpart Felix Tshisekendi have traded accusations. In a recent interview, President Tshisekedi made several heavy-handed accusations and derogatory comments against Kagame, dimming the prospects for a resolution to the ongoing conflict. The DRC president accused Rwanda of using violence to extract minerals from his country and sabotaging peace efforts, calling Kagame an aggressor and a criminal. He once compared Kagame to Adolf Hitler.
To the north, Morocco and Algeria have a long history of hostility between them, which is escalating rather than receding. The 1,400 km long land border between the two countries has been closed since 1994. In 2021, Algeria I interrupted diplomatic relations with Morocco due to accusations of hostility and support for the Berber separatist group. Tensions escalated in March 2024 with the opening of an office in Algiers for the Moroccan Republic of the Rif, a separatist organization allegedly funded by Algeria.
In West Africa, diplomatic skirmishes between member states of the regional common market, ECOWAS, have intensified, particularly following military coups in Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea and Niger. The overthrow of democratic governments in these countries was condemned by other member states, leading to the imposition of economic sanctions against the junta nations and threats military intervention. Resisting pressure to return to democratic rule, Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger announced their withdrawal from ECOWAS to form a new alliance called the Alliance of Sahel States and excluded return to the West African bloc. They also intend to abandon the CFA franc and the creation of a new monetary union.
Although ECOWAS sanctions against the military regimes have since been lifted, ongoing diplomatic disputes continue to affect trade and economic cooperation. For example, Niger’s oil exports to China were halted after sanctions were lifted over a diplomatic row with neighboring Benin. Niger kept its land border with Benin closed, citing the presence of French troops in the country, prompting Benin to block Niger’s first oil export through the port of Seme. This impasse has led Niger to halt oil exports through its Chinese-built pipeline to the Benin coast and is now exploring the option of re-routing through Chad and Cameroon.
